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Argument, voice, structure

Learn how to structure and present an argument in academic writing.

Organise, structure and edit

Follow the basic steps below.

  • First, make an outline plan for each paragraph, and then select the information, examples and comments for each point.
  • Try to make sure you only have one main point per paragraph.
  • Sometimes you will find that you need to delete some of the information. Just save it onto a different Word document, and perhaps you can use it in a different essay.
  • Make sure this essay is focused on the title, with the main points discussed well and in detail, rather than many different minor points. Everything should be clearly relevant, and less is more!
  • To see the structure, the reader also needs to know how each paragraph connects to the previous one. It can help to add transition phrases, to show how each idea flows from the previous one.

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Present an argument

An argument, in simple terms, is a claim plus support for that claim. Make sure you use language that indicates that you are forming an argument. Compare the following simplified examples.

Examples of non-arguments

These three examples are claims, or series of claims, but they are not arguments.

  • There is no single accepted definition of ethics.
  • A new definition of ethics is needed. Here are some existing definitions of the concept of ethics. In addition, here is a suggested new definition.
  • The existing definitions of the concept of ethics are too divergent to be useful. In addition, an updated definition of ethics is needed.
Examples of arguments

These three examples are arguments. Notice the linguistic indicator.

  • The existing definitions of the concept of ethics are too divergent to be useful. Therefore, an updated definition of ethics is needed.
  • The existing definitions of the concept of ethics are too divergent to be useful. This indicates that an updated definition of ethics is needed.
  • A new definition of the concept of ethics is needed, because the existing definitions are inadequate for the current situation. Here are the existing definitions, and here is why they are inadequate. In conclusion, a new definition is required.
Examples of direct language to show argument

Sometimes, as in the simple examples above, the same information can be used either to construct an argument, or simply to write a description. Make sure you are using language that indicates that you are presenting an argument. Try using very direct language, at least in your first draft. This will help you to make sure that you really are constructing an argument.

  • In this paper, the main claim I make is that a new definition of ethics is required. I support this claim with the following points. Firstly...
  • In this paper, I argue that a new definition of ethics is required. I support this claim with the following points. Firstly...

NB: Argumentation can become complex. This section merely presents the difference between presenting an argument and a complete absence of argument.

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Develop your academic voice

In an academic context, the concept of “voice” can mean different things to different people. Despite the variations in meaning, if you become more proficient at using language, you will find it easier to express more precise concepts and write with confidence. It is also worth asking your tutor for examples of writing where they feel the voice is clearly visible.

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Add more explanation

Adding more explanation means writing down the reasons why something might be the way it is. These examples come from a discussion on ethics within a student proposal.

In Example A below, some claims are made without enough explanation. The writing appears vague, and the reader is left asking further questions about the claims. In Example B below, the student has added more explanation. This includes reasons why something might be the case.

Example A: Some claims are made without enough explanation

The respondents may be worried about their responses, and there are various ethical considerations. Interviewing staff members also brings various ethical issues. Confidentiality will be central, and I will need to use pseudonyms for the participants.

Example B: More explanation is added

As the respondents will be discussing changes within a small organization, any individuals they mention may be identifiable to other organization members. As a result, respondents may worry that they will be seen to be passing judgment on friends and peers. In terms of ethical issues, uncomfortable feelings may be provoked, both for respondents and possibly for non-participant staff or students.
In addition, staff members may worry that if they speak freely about the small organization, some of their thoughts may be considered irresponsible, unprofessional, "discreditable or incriminating" (Lee & Renzetti, 1993:ix), for example if they were to talk about difficulties at work, or problems within the organization. This means that confidentiality will be central, to protect the respondents and to mitigate their concerns about speaking freely. I will ensure that the organisation is disguised in the way it is written up, and use pseudonyms chosen by the participants. I will also reassure the respondents about these measures before they participate.

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State the relevance

State directly how each point, or each paragraph, is connected to the title or the overall argument. If you feel that a point is relevant, but you have received feedback that your tutor does not, you could consider adding more explanation as to how or why it is connected. Useful phrases include:

  • This is important because...
  • This is relevant to X because...
  • In terms of [the main topic], this means...
  • The significance of this is...

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Add your own comment

In the example below, the student has added a comment as well as an example. A comment could be:

  • To support the ideas.
  • To suggest the ideas are not valid.
  • To show how the ideas connect to something else.
  • To comment on the context.
  • To add another critical comment.

Make sure it is clear, through the language you use, which is your comment, and which are the ideas from your reference.

Example: Adding your own comment

The responsibility for learning how to reference correctly and avoid plagiarism tends to be passed from the university to the students, as Sutherland-Smith (2010:9) found, through her study of eighteen policies on plagiarism from different universities. She points out that many universities provide self-access resources for students to try to learn more about this area. An example of this can be found on the website “Writing Centre Online” (UCL Institute of Education, 2019), which includes a “Beginners Guide” page with step-by-step instructions on avoiding plagiarism, as well as various links to referencing and plagiarism resources. Despite this type of provision, Sutherland-Smith observes, the support provided is, on the whole, inadequate. It is interesting to note that this inadequacy can be seen at both an institutional level and from a student perspective, which will have implications as discussed in the following section. Sutherland-Smith expands further to explain that this inadequacy is partly because the advice provided is not specific enough for each student, and partly because distance students will often receive even less support, possibly, we could note, as they are wholly reliant on online materials. She concludes that these issues carry implications for the decisions around plagiarism management, as some students may receive more assistance than others, leading to questions of inequity. It could be considered that inequities are a particularly important issue in discussions of plagiarism management, given that controls on plagiarism could be seen, in principle, as intended to make the system fairer.

References

Useful links

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Add your own example

In the example below, the student has added an example from their own knowledge or experience. This can be a good way to start to add your own voice. You could add an example from:

  • your own practice or professional experience
  • from observations you have made
  • from other literature or published materials.

Include an example with a phrase such as “To illustrate...” or “An example of this can be seen in...”. Include the reference if your example is from published materials.

Example: Adding your own examples

The responsibility for learning how to reference correctly and avoid plagiarism tends to be passed from the university to the students, as Sutherland-Smith (2010:9) found, through her study of eighteen policies on plagiarism from different universities. She points out that many universities provide self-access resources for students to try to learn more about this area. An example of this can be found on the website “Writing Centre Online” (UCL Institute of Education, 2019), which includes a “Beginners Guide” page with step-by-step instructions on avoiding plagiarism, as well as various links to referencing and plagiarism resources. Despite this type of provision, Sutherland-Smith observes, the support provided is, on the whole, inadequate. Sutherland-Smith expands further to explain that this inadequacy is partly because the advice provided is not specific enough for each student, and partly because distance students will often receive even less support. She concludes that these issues carry implications for the decisions around plagiarism management, as some students may receive more assistance than others, leading to questions of inequity.

References

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Clarify your writing

Clarify means “make more clear”. In essence, look at your language choices, and also look at what you have not stated. If you are told to clarify a point, you could try to rewrite it in shorter sentences, as a starting point. Next, add more detail, even if it seems obvious to you. Compare these two sentences:

  • The common myths are revisited in this paper.
  • This paper includes a discussion of several contested areas, including X and Y.

The second sentence is (arguably) clearer, as it has replaced the word “myth” with “contested areas”, and instead of “revisited”, it uses “includes a discussion of”. Examples also help to clarify, as they provide the reader with a more concrete illustration of the meaning. 

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Definitions

Providing a definition helps to make sure the reader understands the way that you are using the terminology in your writing. This is important as different terms might have more than one interpretation or usage. Remember that dictionaries are not considered suitable sources for definitions, as they will provide the general meaning, not the academic meaning or the way the term is used in your field.

If you can't find a precise “definition” as such in the literature, you can say that “the term is used to refer to XYZ”, and summarise or describe it in your own words. You can also use the phrase “For the purposes of this discussion, the term XYZ will be taken to refer to ...”.

The paragraphs below have an example of a definition with various interpretations. This level of discussion is not always necessary; it depends on how much agreement or disagreement there is on the meaning of the term.

Example paragraphs

This extract is from the “definitions” section of a Master’s assignment.

Purpose and definitions of coaching
 
It is worth outlining the boundaries and purpose of the term “coaching” before proceeding with the discussion. In general, “coaching” tends to be used within human resource management and organisational theory to refer to a particular type of helping relationship or conversation (Boyatzis, Smith and Blaize, 2006). The object of help in this context is subject to some divergences in interpretation. Indeed, one feature shared by articles about coaching seems to be that authors frequently point out how little agreement there is on the use of the term, and how inconsistently it is used (see, for example, Boyatzis, Smith and Blaize, 2006:12, or Gray and Goregaokar, 2010:526). Some go further, linking the widespread adoption of coaching to the range of interpretations, lamenting that "the very popularity of the approach has resulted in greater confusion" (Clutterbuck, 2008:9), or pointing out with apparent surprise that "despite its popularity, there is little consensus on the nature of executive coaching" (Gray et al, 2011:863). It has even been described as "a kind of “catch-all” concept, covering whatever you want to put under it" (Arnaud, 2003:1133). Variations appear in areas including the stated aims, the specific approach, the location of the meetings, or the techniques and methods used (ibid). Somewhat paradoxically, there appears to be a general consensus only on the lack of consensus.

In response to the lack of an accepted definition, some authors have attempted to clarify what the term “coaching” should refer to, and do so in particular by differentiating it from “mentoring”, a concept with which it is often associated. David Clutterbuck, who has been working in the field for at least 30 years, and who has published extensively on the topics of both coaching and mentoring, (http://www.davidclutterbuckpartnership.com), has frequently attempted to delineate the two activities. In a relatively recent article (Clutterbuck, 2008:8), he suggested that the term “coaching” should primarily be used when performance is addressed, rather than, say, holistic development, a recommendation which highlights that coaching takes place within the context of enhancing productivity at work. The focus on performance is echoed in more practical guidelines such as those written by Atkins and Lawrence (2012:44) in the industry publication IT Now, when they state "coaching is about performance, mentoring is personal".

Although it is often cited, this division between “performance” and “personal” could be considered slightly artificial, and even unnecessary. Indeed, as performance is “performed” by the person, it is interesting to notice what appears to be a denial of the potentially transformational aspect of conversations within a helping relationship. A full discussion of this denial is outside the scope of this short report, but it could be caused by various influencing factors. Those factors might include the wish to justify the allocation of resources towards an activity which should therefore be seen as closely related to profit and accountability, coupled with a suspicion of anything which might be construed as not immediately rational and goal-focused. In other words, to be justifiable within a business context, a belief may exist that coaching should be positioned as closely oriented to business goals. This belief could underlie the prevalence of assertions that coaching is connected more to performance management than to holistic development. However, this report takes the view that there may be a useful overlap, as described below.

Looking to research, the overlapping of personal development with performance management was recently addressed by Gray et al (2011), in a study which aimed to establish whether coaching was seen as primarily beneficial to the individual's development or to the organisation's productivity. In brief, Gray et al's (2011) paper indicates that although involvement in coaching might be experienced as therapeutic by many coachees, it is generally positioned in the literature and by companies which engage in it as something beneficial to the organisation, as mentioned above. The authors also concluded that coaching may enhance various management competencies. Overall, the study indicates that coaching may be of interest to organisations as something which may enhance staff performance and productivity. In addition, although it does not always appear as the primary focus, and is even denied as an intention by some authors as discussed above, it may be that participation in coaching could also bring developmental benefits to the individual.

In essence, this report takes the view that the term coaching refers to an arranged conversation or series of conversations within a work context, conversations which aim at allowing the coachee to discuss and gain clarity on various work-related challenges or goals. Although we will adhere to the general conception provided above of coaching as carrying the intention of enhancing performance or competencies, the potential for personal or holistic development will be acknowledged. Additionally, coaching is often linked in literature to leadership (Boyatzis, Smith and Blaize, 2006; Stern, 2004), yet this report does not adopt that pattern in a restrictive sense. In other words, we would either consider that participating as a coachee can be useful for any employee, not only leaders, or, alternatively, we would broaden the definition of “leadership” to include any colleague who may have an influence within the organisation: a description which could arguably include any staff member. Overall, therefore, the report and its recommendations will prioritise the potentially beneficial outcomes of conversations which fall within the realm of coaching, rather than restricting the discussion to whether or not any particular activity can legitimately be given this term. This may be a broader usage of the concept than that followed by some writers, but is grounded in the intention to provide a practicable analysis of the needs for coaching within an organisation. Within this context, this report is predominantly informed by psychoanalytic theory and practice, justified below.

Source: Anonymous UCL Institute of Education Student (2013)

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Cautious language and hedging

Hedging is a type of language use which “protects” your claims. Using language with a suitable amount of caution can protect your claims from being easily dismissed. It also helps to indicate the level of certainty we have in relation to the evidence or support.

Text comparison

Compare the following two short texts, (A) and (B). You will notice that although the two texts are, in essence, saying the same thing, (B) has a significant amount of extra language around the claim. A large amount of this language is performing the function of “hedging”. How many differences do you see in the second text? What is the function/effect/purpose of each difference? You will probably notice that (B) is more “academic”, but it is important to understand why.

  • A: Extensive reading helps students to improve their vocabulary. 
  • B: Research conducted by Yen (2005) appears to indicate that, for a significant proportion of students, extensive reading may contribute to an improvement in their active vocabulary. Yen's (2005) study involved learners aged 15-16 in the UK, although it may be applicable to other groups. However, the study involved an opt-in sample, which means that the sample students may have been more “keen”, or more involved in reading already. It would be useful to see whether the findings differ in a wider sample.

(Please note that Yen (2005) is a fictional reference used only as an example).

Phrases for hedging

The section below provides some examples of language to use when making knowledge claims. Try to find examples of hedging language in your own reading, to add to these examples.

1) Quantifiers
  • some
  • a fraction
  • a minority/majority of
  • a proportion of
  • to some extent.
2) Appearance
  • appears to
  • has the appearance of
  • is similar to
  • shares characteristics with
  • appears to be in line with.
3) Possibility
  • might
  • may
  • could
  • can
  • has the possibility of
  • has the potential to
  • is able to.
4) Frequency
  • sometimes
  • rarely
  • tends to
  • has a tendency to.
5) Comparatively
  • in a simpler way than...
  • more simply than…
  • when compared to…
6) Context
  • in the context of…
  • … in certain situations…
  • within some households…
7) Evidence
  • based on…
  • as indicated by…
  • according to…
8) Description in language
  • can be described as
  • could be considered to be
  • is sometimes labelled
  • can be equated to
  • the term is often used to mean
  • the term is often used to refer to
  • this may indicate that…
  • this may suggest that…

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Introductions

Basic Components

The introduction to your assignment is likely to require some of the following basic components. Note that the guidance below is particularly relevant to essays. Other types of assignments may include some but not all of these elements, or additional ones.

  • Importance of the topic: Open the assignment by introducing the theme(s) or issue(s) you address. This element is sometimes referred to as “background” or “issue statement”. 
  • Aim: Inform your reader of the purpose of your writing (e.g. This essay explores the concept of X in relation to Y, and critically evaluates.....).
  • Thesis statement: This may not apply in all assignments, but, where appropriate, would indicate the line of argument or reasoning that the assignment takes. (e.g. It is argued/suggested that practitioners and policy-makers need to consider ...).
  • Overview: Guide the reader as to how the work is organised; this is sometimes also referred to as a “synopsis”. (e.g. First, X is discussed, followed by Y...).

You may also need a brief definition of your terms. However, if the definitions are more complex or contested, you probably need a separate section after the introduction. See the section on Definitions above. It is advisable to write or edit your introduction last (not first), to make sure it matches the assignment you have written. If you prefer to draft your introduction first (e.g. as bullet points initially), be aware that you may choose to change it later. 

Example Introduction

Here is an example of the introduction from a report produced for a Master's module.

[Section 1:] Underlying this report is the assumption that organisations, and the individuals within them, hold the intention to do their job well, and, if possible, to do their job better, within the context of their particular situation, abilities and priorities. Creating and developing coaching relationships within the organisation can be described as one form of an attempt to move in this direction. [Section 2:] Accordingly, this report analyses the potential for an increase in coaching practice within one particular organisation. [Section 3:] It will be suggested that coaching might usefully be incorporated into certain areas of the organisation. [Section 4:] Coaching within organisations, for the purpose of this report, is taken to refer to a particular type of intentional conversation. This conversation may contribute to the development of the coachee while potentially enhancing the individual's work within the organisation (as discussed by Boyatzis, Smith and Blaize, 2006). [Section 5:] The report will first consider a more nuanced definition of coaching, along with an outline of current themes in the way coaching is discussed in the literature. This is followed by an explanation and justification of taking a psychoanalytically informed approach to an analysis of coaching within organisations (Arnaud, 2003). After that, the specific organisational context of the [XYZ workplace] will be analysed, together with an assessment of the need for coaching within this organisation, and an evaluation of the existing potential to facilitate such conversations. At the same time, a brief strategy and implementation plan that details how these needs could be met will be presented.

Source: Blackwell, J. (2013) Advancing coaching and mentoring in and across organisational contexts. Organisational Report. UCL Institute of Education: Unpublished MA Assignment.

Analysis

Below, the elements of the example introduction are analysed in more detail.

Section 1

Underlying this report is the assumption that organisations, and the individuals within them, hold the intention to do their job well, and, if possible, to do their job better, within the context of their particular situation, abilities and priorities. Creating and developing coaching relationships within the organisation can be described as one form of an attempt to move in this direction.

Comment: These two statements set out the importance of the topic. The way this is done, and the information that is needed, will vary depending on the topic. Please remember that this is only one example.

Section 2

Accordingly, this report analyses the potential for an increase in coaching practice within one particular organisation. 

Comment: This sentence states the aim of the assignment, in the context of the abovementioned importance (Accordingly...). It also restates the assignment title/task.

Section 3

It will be suggested that coaching might usefully be incorporated into certain areas of the organisation.

Comment: This is the thesis statement.

Section 4

Coaching within organisations, for the purpose of this report, is taken to refer to a particular type of intentional conversation. This conversation may contribute to the development of the coachee while potentially enhancing the individual's work within the organisation (as discussed by Boyatzis, Smith and Blaize, 2006).

Comment: Here we have a brief definition of the key term, for the purpose of this assignment.

Section 5

The report will first consider a more nuanced definition of coaching, along with an outline of current themes in the way coaching is discussed in the literature. This is followed by an explanation and justification of taking a psychoanalytically informed approach to an analysis of coaching within organisations (Arnaud, 2003). After that, the specific organisational context of the [XYZ workplace] will be analysed, together with an assessment of the need for coaching within this organisation, and an evaluation of the existing potential to facilitate such conversations. At the same time, a brief strategy and implementation plan that details how these needs could be met will be presented.

Comment: This final section provides the outline/structure/organisation, so that the reader knows what to expect.

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Conclusions

Basic Components

As with introductions, conclusions vary according to assignment types. In general, your conclusion probably needs to include some or all of the following basic components. 

  • An indication that this is the conclusion: If you are not using a subheading (e.g. “Conclusion”), you could start with a clear phrase that indicates this is the conclusion. (e.g. “In conclusion...”, “To conclude...” or “Overall...”). Such signposting can help the reader to understand that they have reached the concluding section of your assignment.
  • Summary of the discussion: This could reflect the aim/purpose and/or organisation/outline indicated in the introduction. (e.g. “This essay has critically explored X in relation to Y...” or “This paper set out to examine the relationship between X and Y...”).
  • Re-statement of the central argument(s): This might reflect the thesis statement in the introduction. (e.g. “The discussion has highlighted the main....”, or “It has been argued that the priorities for...”).
  • Implications: You could make recommendations for research or practice, or answer the question “So what?”. (e.g. “It may be useful to investigate further...”, “One recommendation for classroom practice could be...”, or “The above discussion highlights the importance of ....”).

Further guidelines

You can include references in the conclusion, but it is advisable not to include any new references. This is because you do not have space in the conclusion to discuss any new references in enough detail. The conclusion is not generally the place for new ideas. Rather, it summarises what has already been stated. 

Example conclusion

To sum up, this report has defined coaching as a conversation which can enhance performance at the same time as contributing to the development of the coachee (Boyatzis, Smith and Blaize, 2006). The report took a psychoanalytically informed approach to an analysis of coaching within organisations, and considered the associated benefits and the required resources. Applying the theory to the specific organisational context of the [XYZ Workplace], the need for coaching in this context was discussed, together with a strategy and implementation plan in order to facilitate the recommended coaching conversations. It was suggested that coaching could usefully be incorporated into certain areas of the organization.

Source: Anonymous UCL Institute of Education student (2013).

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Linking and transitions

A clear structure is arguably half actual “organisation” and half “persuading the reader that your structure is logical”. You can do this through linking and transition language to show how the paragraphs and sections are linked. Read your draft and decide which of these to add:

  • An introductory linking statement to the start of a paragraph/section (e.g. “Having outlined key theories in relation to X, I now consider these in relation to the context of...”). 
  • A transition paragraph between paragraphs or sections. This is a short extra paragraph which explains the transition (example below).
  • A linking statement to the end of a paragraph/section (e.g. “This can be viewed as linked to X, which will be further discussed in the next section”).
Example summary and transition paragraphs

(Here is an example of a summary paragraph and transition paragraph, from a report produced for a Master's module. This appeared at the end of a section on the current state of knowledge in coaching.)

In sum, this section has outlined some key issues within the current state of knowledge in coaching. As was demonstrated, one precise definition does not exist, but a general convergence appears in that the term refers to a particular type of conversation which may contribute to the coachee's development while simultaneously enhancing their performance (Boyatzis, Smith and Blaize, 2006). The contributions of psychoanalytic theory and practice to coaching and to organisational consultancy were also briefly reviewed and justified, as this growing area may allow coaching to fully utilise the transformational potential of the one-to-one format. Conceptions of learning as non-linear and unpredictable were also delineated, as coaching has the potential to promote the learning of both the individual coachee and their organisation.

Having outlined briefly our understanding of “coaching” for the purposes of this report, and the recommended approach, it will be useful to map out in slightly more detail the resources required, before discussing the practical application of a coaching programme in one organisation.

Source: Blackwell, J. (2013). Advancing coaching and mentoring in and across organisational contexts. Organisational Report. UCL Institute of Education: Unpublished MA Assignment.

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Paragraphs

If your paragraphs are too long, it could make them more difficult for the reader to follow, and can also mean ideas merge together too much. However, if the main body paragraphs are too short, they may appear to lack depth. If you need to divide a longer paragraph, it could be acceptable to include two paragraphs on the same topic, focussing on two slightly different aspects of that topic. You could potentially link them with a transition phrase. If a main body paragraph is too short (fewer than 150 words), you may need to ask yourself the following questions:

  • Could it fit somewhere else? Perhaps it links to another sub-theme elsewhere in the assignment.
  • What does it add to the discussion? Perhaps state the significance, hence giving the paragraph more depth and making it longer.
  • Does it need more detail and analysis? As stated above, perhaps make the significance explicit and answer the question “So what?”.
  • Could it be removed? 

Note that shorter paragraphs may be acceptable in some instances; examples may include introductory paragraphs to chapters (e.g. in a report or dissertation) or transition paragraphs.

Here is an example of several paragraphs all on the same “topic” (definitions of the terms). Notice how the paragraphs are linked together.

Example paragraphs

(This extract is from the “definitions” section of a Master's assignment.)

Purpose and definitions of coaching

It is arguably worth outlining the boundaries and purpose of the term “coaching” before proceeding with the discussion. In general, “coaching” tends to be used within human resource management and organisational theory to refer to a particular type of helping relationship or conversation (Boyatzis, Smith and Blaize, 2006). The object of help in this context is subject to some divergences in interpretation. Indeed, one feature shared by articles about coaching seems to be that authors frequently point out how little agreement there is on the use of the term, and how inconsistently it is used (see, for example, Boyatzis, Smith and Blaize, 2006 or Gray and Goregaokar, 2010). Some go further, linking the widespread adoption of coaching to the range of interpretations, lamenting that "the very popularity of the approach has resulted in greater confusion" (Clutterbuck, 2008:9), or pointing out with apparent surprise that "despite its popularity, there is little consensus on the nature of executive coaching" (Gray et al, 2011:863). It has even been described as "a kind of 'catch-all' concept, covering whatever you want to put under it" (Arnaud, 2003:1133). Variations appear in areas including the stated aims, the specific approach, the location of the meetings, or the techniques and methods used (ibid). Somewhat paradoxically, there appears to be a general consensus only on the lack of consensus.

In response to the lack of an accepted definition, some authors have attempted to clarify what the term “coaching” should refer to, and do so in particular by differentiating it from “mentoring”, a concept with which it is often associated. David Clutterbuck, who has been working in the field for at least 30 years, and who has published extensively on the topics of both coaching and mentoring, (David Clutterbuck Partnership, no date), has frequently attempted to delineate the two activities. In a relatively recent article (Clutterbuck, 2008:8), he suggested that the term “coaching” should primarily be used when performance is addressed, rather than, say, holistic development, a recommendation which highlights that coaching takes place within the context of enhancing productivity at work. The focus on performance is echoed in more practical guidelines such as those written by Atkins and Lawrence (2012:44) in the industry publication IT Now, when they state "coaching is about performance, mentoring is personal".

Although it is often cited, this division between “performance” and “personal” could be considered slightly artificial, and even unnecessary. Indeed, as performance is “performed” by the person, it is interesting to notice what appears to be a denial of the potentially transformational aspect of conversations within a helping relationship. A full discussion of this denial is outside the scope of this short report, but it could be caused by various influencing factors. Those factors might include the wish to justify the allocation of resources towards an activity which should therefore be seen as closely related to profit and accountability, coupled with a suspicion of anything which might be construed as not immediately rational and goal-focused. In other words, to be justifiable within a business context, a belief may exist that coaching should be positioned as closely oriented to business goals. This belief could underlie the prevalence of assertions that coaching is connected more to performance management than to holistic development. However, this report takes the view that there may be a useful overlap, as described below.

Looking to research, the overlapping of personal development with performance management was recently addressed by Gray et al (2011), in a study which aimed to establish whether coaching was seen as primarily beneficial to the individual's development or to the organisation's productivity. In brief, Gray et al's (2011) paper indicates that although involvement in coaching might be experienced as therapeutic by many coachees, it is generally positioned in the literature and by companies which engage in it as something beneficial to the organisation, as mentioned above. The authors also concluded that coaching may enhance various management competencies. Overall, the study indicates that coaching may be of interest to organisations as something which may enhance staff performance and productivity. In addition, although it does not always appear as the primary focus, and is even denied as an intention by some authors as discussed above, it may be that participation in coaching could also bring developmental benefits to the individual.

In essence, this report takes the view that the term coaching refers to an arranged conversation or series of conversations within a work context, conversations which aim at allowing the coachee to discuss and gain clarity on various work-related challenges or goals. Although we will adhere to the general conception provided above of coaching as carrying the intention of enhancing performance or competencies, the potential for personal or holistic development will be acknowledged. Additionally, coaching is often linked in literature to leadership (Boyatzis, Smith and Blaize, 2006; Stern, 2004), yet this report does not adopt that pattern in a restrictive sense. In other words, we would either consider that participating as a coachee can be useful for any employee, not only leaders, or, alternatively, we would broaden the definition of “leadership” to include any colleague who may have an influence within the organisation: a description which could arguably include any staff member. Overall, therefore, the report and its recommendations will prioritise the potentially beneficial outcomes of conversations which fall within the realm of coaching, rather than restricting the discussion to whether or not any particular activity can legitimately be given this term. This may be a broader usage of the concept than that followed by some writers, but is grounded in the intention to provide a practicable analysis of the needs for coaching within an organisation. Within this context, this report is predominantly informed by psychoanalytic theory and practice, justified below.

Source: Anonymous UCL Institute of Education Student (2013).

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Tutor feedback on organisation

Organisation

If the tutor says you need to improve your organisation or structure, you may need to rearrange the ideas in the essay quite considerably. This will take time. It may help to start on a new document rather than working from this original one, and only moving across the information that you really want to keep.

Try to start each paragraph with a transition phrase or topic sentence. Imagine if the paragraphs were all cut up and spread out on a table. Someone should be able to put them back together in the correct order, and they should be able to clearly see which paragraph comes next. Try to think of that as you are writing!

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