Introduction
Fiji, a South Pacific island nation, is no stranger to tropical cyclones; on average the country experiences two every season [1]. However, in February 2016, the country experienced a disaster of unprecedented scale when Cyclone Winston made landfall. Cyclone Winston was the most powerful cyclone ever recorded in the Southern Hemisphere, the first-ever Category 5 (the highest classification) cyclone to make landfall in Fiji [2], and the second strongest cyclone to strike land anywhere in the world [3], with wind speeds exceeding 280 km/h. It left behind catastrophic damage, with entire villages wiped out, thousands displaced, and 44 people killed. The Fijian Government estimates that 62% of the population (about 540,000 people) were directly affected by the cyclone [4].
Damage sustained to a house in Tailevu Province, Viti Levu, Fiji, after Cyclone Winston. Source: Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade (2016). Cyclone Winston damage in Tailevu, Fiji. Available at: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cyclone_Winston_damage_in_Tailevu,_Fiji.jpg.
Factors Contributing to Vulnerability Before and During Cyclone Winston
Geographic and climate variability: Fiji’s geographical location in the tropical South Pacific makes it highly susceptible to cyclones, especially between November and April, the cyclone season. With over 330 islands, many of which are isolated and lack sophisticated infrastructure, Fiji faces unique challenges in preparing for and responding to natural hazards like cyclones [5, 6]. The remote location of several communities on smaller islands limited the speed of evacuation, the delivery of aid, and access to crucial resources during and after the disaster.
Furthermore, climate change has increased ocean temperatures, creating ideal conditions for more frequent and severe cyclones [7]. As sea levels rise, coastal areas in Fiji also face heightened risks of storm surges and coastal erosion, exacerbating the impact of cyclones on these vulnerable low-lying communities.
Economic factors: As a developing country [8], with an economy reliant on tourism and agriculture, Fiji has limited financial resources for extensive disaster preparedness and recovery efforts. The economic infrastructure, such as housing, healthcare and emergency response systems, is often under-resourced, leaving communities more vulnerable to extreme weather events [9]. After Cyclone Winston, it was estimated that damage to Fiji’s economy amounted to FJD 2.98 billion (approximately USD 1.4 billion), which was nearly a third of the country’s GDP [10]. The significant economic impact hampered reconstruction and recovery efforts [9, 10], highlighting the financial vulnerability of the nation. Residents lost power and water for days, and lacked the financial means to make necessary repairs.
Housing and infrastructure: In Fiji, traditional structures and houses in rural areas are typically made from materials like wood and corrugated iron [11], which are less resilient to intense weather conditions. Cyclone Winston exposed these weaknesses, as many homes were unable to withstand the storm’s Category 5 winds. Many residents lacked any form of property or crop insurance, further compounding the challenges faced in rebuilding. Poor road networks, especially on outer islands, delayed emergency response and hampered recovery efforts. Today, there are still people living in tents because of Winston.
The destruction observed in Nubuna village after Cyclone Winston struck. Source: NZ Defence Force (2016). Wikimedia Commons.
Social and cultural factors: Fijian society is built around close-knit communities, with a strong reliance on traditional systems of governance and communal support [5]. Although these systems provided some resilience, they also limited external support channels. In rural and island communities, the majority of people depend on subsistence farming, which was severely impacted by the cyclone, leading to food insecurity in affected areas [6, 12].
Most communities in Fiji are also highly religious, with only about 1% of the population identifying as non-religious [13]. Some people took a fatalistic approach to preparing for the disaster, accepting that whatever was to happen was ‘God’s plan’ [14]. This perspective, while rooted in cultural beliefs, sometimes limited proactive disaster preparation.
Lack of effective preparedness, warning and communication: Isolation and limited communication infrastructure delayed the dissemination of critical information about the approaching cyclone, reducing time to prepare. Previous warnings which had resulted in events with minimal impacts lulled many into a false sense of security [14]. Many perceived, beforehand, the event to not be unlike cyclones in the past. Further, the initial warning, issued by the Fiji Meteorological Service on February 14, was cancelled just two days later when Winston seemed to divert its path. However, when it headed back towards Fiji, the second warning, issued on February 18, was largely met with complacency [14]. There was also unfamiliarity with terms such as ‘Category 5’, meaning large numbers of people were unaware of the severity of the hazard.
Post-Winston Measures to Reduce Vulnerability
Improved Early Warning Systems and Communication: One of the key lessons from Cyclone Winston was the need for enhanced early warning systems and community-level communication [15]. Since then, Fiji has made strides in developing and deploying new early warning systems, which include regular weather updates, cyclone preparedness drills, and expanded radio and mobile networks to reach remote communities [15]. International partners such as the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and the Pacific Community (SPC) have collaborated with Fiji to improve forecasting technology, enabling more accurate predictions and earlier warnings.
Strengthening Infrastructure and Housing: To prevent similar devastation, the Fijian government introduced stricter building codes that require cyclone-resilient designs, especially for public buildings and schools, which often double as evacuation centres during disasters [16]. International NGOs like Habitat for Humanity have also been involved in rebuilding efforts, helping to construct cyclone-resistant homes using durable materials. Programs were launched to support the retrofitting of homes and to educate local communities about resilient construction techniques.
Community-Based Disaster Preparedness Programs: In addition to structural improvements, community engagement programs were introduced to enhance local disaster preparedness. Training sessions, often led by local leaders and facilitated by NGOs, have helped build awareness and preparedness at the grassroots level [17]. These programs include cyclone simulation drills, first aid training and education on evacuation procedures. Empowering local communities to be proactive has improved response times and reduced dependence on external aid in the immediate aftermath of cyclones.
Economic Diversification and Disaster Resilience Planning: Given the economic impact of Cyclone Winston, Fiji has worked to diversify its economy to reduce reliance on climate-sensitive sectors like tourism and agriculture. This includes promoting more resilient agricultural practices, such as crop diversification and climate-smart farming techniques [12]. Financial mechanisms, such as the establishment of the Fiji Development Bank’s ‘Green Bonds’ were also introduced to fund climate adaptation projects, aiming to build long-term resilience.
Evaluating the Impact: Were These Measures Effective?
Cyclone Yasa and Lessons Learned: Cyclone Yasa, another Category 5 cyclone, struck Fiji in December 2020, providing an opportunity to evaluate the success of the post-Winston measures. While Cyclone Yasa caused significant damage, the impact was notably less catastrophic compared to Cyclone Winston. This difference can be attributed to several factors:
- Better early warnings: The improved early warning systems allowed more time for evacuation and preparation, particularly in remote areas [18].
- Stronger buildings: The new building codes proved effective, with many cyclone-resilient homes and public buildings sustaining less damage than traditional structures [11].
- Community preparedness: The emphasis on community disaster preparedness helped reduce fatalities, as more people understood evacuation routes and safety procedures [19].
Ongoing challenges: Despite these improvements, challenges remain. Limited resources mean that not all structures meet the updated building codes, and funding for extensive retrofitting is insufficient [16]. Additionally, while agricultural resilience has improved, the economic impact of cyclones on Fiji’s tourism industry remains significant [8]. The pandemic-related economic strain compounded these issues, revealing the need for ongoing international support and local resilience-building [5, 9].
Conclusions: Building a Resilient Future for Fiji
Fiji’s experience with Cyclone Winston underscored the need for comprehensive disaster preparedness and resilience-building. The steps taken in the wake of Winston have proven valuable in mitigating the impact of subsequent cyclones, but the journey toward resilience is ongoing. By continuing to invest in cyclone-resistant infrastructure, community-based disaster preparedness and economic diversification, Fiji can hope to reduce its vulnerability to future cyclones and ensure a safer future for its people.
However, climate change’s impact on cyclone frequency and severity remains a critical threat, requiring both local and global efforts to build adaptive capacity. The lessons learned from Cyclone Winston remain crucial not just for Fiji, but for all small island nations facing the mounting threat of global warming.
References
[1] Fiji Meteorological Service. (2024). Tropical Cyclone Outlook. Available at: https://www.met.gov.fj.
[2] Di Liberto, T. (2016). Tropical Cyclone Winston Causes Devastation in Fiji, a Tropical Paradise. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Available at: https://www.climate.gov.
[3] Le Page, M. (2016). Record global temperatures bring strongest ever cyclone to Fiji’. New Scientist. Available at: https://www.newscientist.com/article/2078365/.
[4] Miyaji, M., Fujieda, A., Waqalevu, S. & Kobayashi, H. (2017). Challenges for self-recovery from cyclone disasters in a traditional Fijian village: The case of Navala village after Tropical Cyclone Winston. Disaster Management and Human Health Risk V: Reducing Risk, Improving Outcomes, 173, 161-172.
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[11] Habitat for Humanity. (n.d.). Cyclone-Resilient Housing Projects. Available at: http://www.habitatfiji.org.
[12] FAO. (n.d.). Climate-Smart Agriculture in Fiji. Available at: http://www.fao.org.
[13] U.S. Department of State. (2023). 2022 Report on International Religious Freedom: Fiji. Available at: https://www.state.gov/.
[14] Pearce, T., Currenti, R., Doran, B., Sidle, R., Ford, J. & Leon, J. (2020). “Even if it doesn’t come, you should be prepared”: Natural hazard perception, remoteness, and implications for disaster risk reduction in rural Fiji. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 48, 101591. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2020.101591.
[15] Pacific Community. (n.d.). Fiji’s Early Warning Systems. Available at: http://www.spc.int.
[16] Fiji Ministry of Infrastructure and Transport. (n.d.). Cyclone-Resilient Building Codes. Available at: http://www.infrastructurefiji.gov.fj.
[17] Red Cross Fiji. (n.d.). Community-Based Disaster Preparedness. Available at: http://www.redcross.org.fj.
[18] Australian Bureau of Meteorology. (n.d.). Cyclone Yasa and Early Warning. Available at: http://www.bom.gov.au.
[19] Fiji National Disaster Management Office. (n.d.). Disaster Preparedness Programs. Available at: http://www.ndmo.gov.fj.